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 **Other reading:** Bohannan (1959); Bohannan (1955); Sahlins (1992)
+===== Bohannan’s prediction =====
+Historically the people of TIv in northern Nigeria classified all of the objects of value in one of three ranked categories.
+Items within the same category could be exchanged for each other, but to convert items from a higher category to a lower category was shameful and immoral.
+  * Women as wives
+  * Brass rods, //tugudu// cloth, other prestigious items
+  * Food, livestock, tools, and other common, everyday items.
+Bohannan claimed that money would disrupt the separation of spheres of exchange. However…
+  * Money was initially placed in the lowest of spheres, or even outside of the three spheres (Bohannan 1955, 68). It continued to mainly be exchanged against low-ranking items (Parry and Bloch 1989, 13–14).
+  * Other scholars have noted that money does not have this revolutionizing effect on similar systems (Hoskins 1997, 186–88).
+===== Why was Bohannan’s prediction wrong? =====
+Why was Bohannan so confident that the Tiv multicentric economy would become a unicentric economy in which every valuable thing had a price in money?
+Bohannan understands people’s values as an anthropologist, but when he considers social and cultural change, he thinks in [[:ethnocentrism_and_cultural_relativism|ethnocentric terms]].
+  * Bohannan, who was born and raised in the US (a unicentric economy in his terms), assumed that his present was the Tiv people’s future.
+Is a society in which commodity exchange dominates truly a unicentric economy? Is everything for sale?
+===== An editorial decision =====
+Portland, Oregon, 1997. The Reed College //Quest// editors meet to discuss an inquiry about a classified ad.
+Nobody involved can remember what it said. It was something like this:
+**“WANTED Healthy female student to help bring joy to an infertile couple. Will pay $3000 plus all medical expenses for a donation of several eggs. Candidates should have a minimum GPA of 3.5 and minimum combined SAT scores of 1600.”
+**
+(GPA: grade point average, 3.5 is approximately a WAM of 80. SATs are college entrance exams. Under the old system, 1600 would have been close to an ATAR of 95.)
+===== Human trafficking? =====
+A friend recalls similar ads in student publications at a university in Vancouver, British Columbia. “We had ads at my college in Canada too, even though selling eggs isn’t legal there. I guess they would ship you to the US for the procedure” (personal communication, 2014).
+===== What the ads ask for =====
+  * University students (women who have more and better-quality ova).
+  * Preferred hair and eye color.
+  * Preferred race.
+  * Preferred school. Ivy-league (Harvard, Yale, etc.) schools are especially popular, as are Berkeley and Stanford.
+===== Not for sale? =====
+Unlike many countries, the sale of gametes is largely unregulated in the US, and the US has generally looser regulations on IVF and surrogacy. ({{:tissue-sale.pdf|PDF version}}.)
+{{:tissue-sale.jpg|A table comparing the legal status of the commercial sale of different kinds of human tissue and surrogacy services in several different countries and jurisdictions.}}
+Table: A comparison of the legal status of the commercial sale of different kinds of human tissue and surrogacy services in several different countries and jurisdictions. <html><span style="font-size: 0.5em; color: gray;">(See Bencharif 2022; Birmingham 1998; Brandt, Wilkinson, and Williams 2021; Burkitt 2011; Cattapan and Baylis n.d.; Caulfield et al. 2014; Davis and correspondent 2022; Jaworski 2020; Klitzman and Sauer 2015; Legislative Services Branch 2020; Nagarajan 2022; “Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021” 2021; “Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021” 2021; Pollack 2015; Smith, Cohen, and Cassidy n.d.; Yadav n.d.; Zheng 2017.)</span></html>
+===== Tiv spheres in a colonial context =====
+According to Guyer (2004), the Tiv spheres of exchange are not a tradition, and not frozen in time. They are a historical phenomenon.
+  * Brass rods work like a kind of currency (noted also by Bohannan), but this a medium of exchange that Tiv keep out of the hands of banks.
+  * Cash transactions are morally judged, but not because spending money is prohibited or sinful. Money-exchange means a loss of control over Tiv people’s collective wealth as a community. Suspicion of money is a political statement.
+===== Taro gardening in Wamira, PNG and Luo land ownership in Kenya =====
+One of the ways societies respond to market forces is by placing limits on individual choices
+  * Wamira (Papua New Guinea) taro gardens can’t be tended with metal tools (Kahn [1986] 1993)
+  * When Luo (Kenya) people sell land, they earn “bitter money” (Shipton 1989)
+===== Inside of every contemporary society, there are two competing principles =====
+==== A provisional conclusion ====
+  * Every society is based on the obligations of reciprocity, even if the weight of these obligations is not visible to the people in that society.
+    * All societies have at least two spheres of exchanges: things you can exchange (for money) and things you cannot.
+  * No society exists in isolation, and today every society is part of a larger history of the expansion of global capitalism and its core social institutions: private property, the commodity, and the alienation of value.
+  * But the story of gifts and commodities is not a from–to story: No society is simply walking from gift exchange, reciprocity, and interdependence to alienation, individualism, and commodity consumption.
+    * Both the logic of the gift and the logic of the commodity coexist in every society.
+    * These two systems are based on completely contrary ways of being and thinking, so they often enter into conflict and opposition.
+    * This is not the only way they interact, as we will see in the next lecture.
 ===== References and further reading =====
+“Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021.” 2021, December. http://indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17031.
+Bencharif, Sarah-Taïssir. 2022. “Blood Money: Europe Wrestles with Moral Dilemma over Paying Donors for Plasma.” POLITICO. April 21, 2022. https://www.politico.eu/article/blood-money-europe-wrestles-with-moral-dilemma-over-paying-donors-for-plasma/.
+Birmingham, Karen. 1998. “Chinese Introduce First Blood Law.” //Nature Medicine// 4 (2): 139–39. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0298-139c.
 Bohannan, Paul. 1955. “Some Principles of Exchange and Investment Among the Tiv.” //American Anthropologist//, New Series, 57 (1): 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1955.57.1.02a00080.
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 ———. 1959. “The Impact of Money on an African Subsistence Economy.” //The Journal of Economic History// 19 (4): 491–503. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050700085946.
+Brandt, Reuven, Stephen Wilkinson, and Nicola Williams. 2021. “The Donation and Sale of Human Eggs and Sperm.” In //The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy//, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/gametes-donation-sale/.
+Burkitt, Laurie. 2011. “Chinese Mothers Have Breast Milk, Will Sell. Anyone Buying?” //Wall Street Journal//, June 14, 2011, sec. China Real Time Report. https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-CJB-13912.
+Cattapan, Alana, and Françoise Baylis. n.d. “Paying Surrogates, Sperm and Egg Donors Goes Against Canadian Values.” The Conversation. Accessed August 3, 2022. http://theconversation.com/paying-surrogates-sperm-and-egg-donors-goes-against-canadian-values-94197.
+Caulfield, Timothy, Erin Nelson, Brice Goldfeldt, and Scott Klarenbach. 2014. “Incentives and Organ Donation: What’s (Really) Legal in Canada?” //Canadian Journal of Kidney Health and Disease// 1 (May): 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/2054-3581-1-7.
+Davis, Nicola, and Nicola Davis Science correspondent. 2022. “Growing Sales of Breast Milk Online Amid Warnings about Risks.” //The Guardian//, February 19, 2022, sec. Society. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/feb/19/growing-sales-of-breast-milk-online-amid-warnings-about-risks.
+Guyer, Jane I. 2004. //Marginal Gains: Monetary Transactions in Atlantic Africa//. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
+Hoskins, Janet. 1997. //The Play of Time: Kodi Perspectives on Calendars, History, and Exchange//. Berkeley: University of California Press. https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0x0n99tc&chunk.id=d0e7605&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e7388&brand=ucpress.
+Jaworski, Peter M. 2020. “Not Compensating Canadian Blood Plasma Donors Means Potentially Risky Reliance on Foreign Plasma.” //The Conversation// (blog). August 14, 2020. http://theconversation.com/not-compensating-canadian-blood-plasma-donors-means-potentially-risky-reliance-on-foreign-plasma-143970.
+Kahn, Miriam. (1986) 1993. //Always Hungry, Never Greedy: Food and the Expression of Gender in a Melanesian Society//. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
+Klitzman, Robert, and Mark V. Sauer. 2015. “Creating and Selling Embryos for ‘Donation’: Ethical Challenges.” //American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology// 212 (2): 167–170.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2014.10.1094.
+Legislative Services Branch. 2020. “Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Assisted Human Reproduction Act.” June 9, 2020. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/a-13.4/page-1.html#h-6052.
+Nagarajan, Rema. 2022. “Sale of Breast Milk Raises Eyebrows.” //Times of India//, July 3, 2022. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/sale-of-breast-milk-raises-eyebrows/articleshow/92623732.cms.
+Parry, Jonathan, and Maurice Bloch. 1989. “Introduction: Money and the Morality of Exchange.” In //Money and the Morality of Exchange//, edited by Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch, 1–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
+Pollack, Andrew. 2015. “Breast Milk Becomes a Commodity, With Mothers Caught Up in Debate.” //The New York Times//, March 20, 2015, sec. Business. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/21/business/breast-milk-products-commercialization.html.
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 Sharp, Timothy L. 2013. “Baias, Bisnis, and Betel Nut: The Place of Traders in the Making of a Melanesian Market.” In //Engaging with Capitalism: Cases from Oceania//, edited by Kate Barclay and Fiona McCormack, 227–56. Research in Economic Anthropology 33. Bingley, Eng., UK: Emerald Group Publishing.
+Shipton, Parker. 1989. //Bitter Money: Cultural Economy and Some African Meanings of Forbidden Commodities//. Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association.
+Smith, Julie P., Mathilde Cohen, and Tanya M. Cassidy. n.d. “Behind Moves to Regulate Breastmilk Trade Lies the Threat of a Corporate Takeover.” The Conversation. Accessed August 3, 2022. http://theconversation.com/behind-moves-to-regulate-breastmilk-trade-lies-the-threat-of-a-corporate-takeover-152446.
+“Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.” 2021, December. http://indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/17046.
+Yadav, Pooja. n.d. “Explained: Why Commercialisation Of Mother’s Milk Is Raising Ethical Questions.” IndiaTimes. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/news/why-commercialisation-of-mothers-milk-is-raising-ethical-questions-574550.html.
+Zheng, Sarah. 2017. “Chinese Mums Cash in on Latest and Lucrative Craze: Selling Surplus Breast Milk.” South China Morning Post. June 7, 2017. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2097293/chinese-mums-cash-latest-and-lucrative-craze-selling-surplus.